Ibn Battuta, Other Arab Travelers, and the Rihla Genre of Travelogues
The word “Rihla” (رحلة) means “journey” in Arabic, but has also come to refer to writings about that journey, or what one might call a “travelogue” in English. Over time, Rihla developed into an entire genre of Arabic literature. This kind of writing has deep roots in Islam because travel in the medieval Arab world was intertwined with Hajj. Driving many of these journeys is the medieval Islamic notion of “travel in search of knowledge” (الرحلة في طلب العلم).
It is important to note that not all travels were pilgrimages. Rihla eventually became “one of the main features of Muslim [and Arab] culture in the western part of Dar al Islam…learned people ventured to the eastern lands of Islam… seeking advanced learning in religious matters and spiritual fulfillment.” So although Mecca and Medina may have been central axes for many of these journeys, medieval Arab travelers strayed much further afield to explore far corners of the world.
Origins of Rihla & Its Literature
Rihla emerged as a literary genre from the 12th century onwards. Born out of al-Andalus and North Africa, it was crystallized by the writings of Ibn Jubayr and Ibn Batutta (though there were many travelers that came before them). The travelogues that both these travelers produced to reflect upon their journeys, brought together personal narratives, anecdotes, opinions and descriptions. Accordingly, this type of writing not only stands strong as a body of literature in its own right, but gives us invaluable insights into the places, societies and customs that the travelers encountered on their way. At the time of writing, these records would have been used as a travel guide by future pilgrims.
Classical Islamic Conceptions of the World
To understand the way that these travelers saw the world and therefore the places to which they traveled, it’s important to know how lands, borders and places were divided in classical Islamic consciousness:
Dar al-Islam / Dar al-Salam
Literally “land of Islam,” denotes places which are governed by Islamic law.
Dar al-Sulh / Dar al-Ahd
Meaning “land of treaty” or “conciliation” and refers to places where Muslim governments had brokered agreements or treaties.
Dar al-Harb
Translates to “land of war” and describes lands that border Dar al-Islam but have not reached an agreement or treaty.
Abu Bakr Ibn al-Arabi
A Muslim judge and scholar of Maliki law from al-Andalus, Abu Bakr Ibn al Arabi was expelled to Morocco during the reign of the Almoravids. From there, he traveled to places including Egypt, Jerusalem, Damascus, Baghdad, Mecca and Medina. On his return to modern-day Spain, he wrote a Rihla recounting his travels in the East, thus enshrining and sharing the knowledge he had gained from his time abroad.
Abu Ibn Fadlan
A 10th-century traveler from Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate, Ibn Fadlan traveled with an Abbasid mission to Volga (modern-day Russia) to explain and teach Islam to the recently converted Volga Bulgars. During his travels, he met many different peoples and his Risala, describes in vivid detail his encounters with these various communities, including the Rus Varangians – a group of vikings and the Oghuz Turks.
An early 20th-century painting depicting Arab trade with the Rus by Sergei Ivanov. Via Middle East Eye & Wikipedia
Ibn Jubayr (al-Balansi)
Many sources attribute the rise of the Rihla genre to Ibn Jubayr, who worked as secretary to Abu Sa’id Uthman Abd al-Mu’min, the governor of Granada in al-Andalus. As legend has it, Ibn Jubayr was forced away on his travels after the governor coerced him into drinking seven cups of wine. In exchange, the prince gave him seven cups of gold dinars – enough to fund his swift exit from the court and his long pilgrimage to Mecca. During the resulting two-year journey, Ibn Jubayr “made daily recordings of strange events and places, notable people and customs that he observed when roaming around the medieval East.” He traveled to Cairo, Upper Egypt, Jeddah, Mecca, Medina, Iraq, Syria and Sicily, all of which was detailed in his account Rihlah which was translated to English by RJC Broadhurst in 1952.
Muhammad as-Saffar
The original manuscript of the rihla, handwritten for the sultan by Muhammad as-Saffar upon his return from France. Via Wikipedia
Muhammad Bin Abdellah as-Saffar was a Moroccan Islamic jurist, royal scribe, and the author of “Ar-Rihla at-Tetuania Ila ad-Diar al-Faransia.”
الرحلة التطوانية إلى الديار الفرنسية
This travelogue was the culmination of as-Saffar’s voyage to France as part of a special diplomatic mission dispatched by the reigning, Sultan Abd al-Rahman, in 1845. He wrote this account specifically for the Sultan who wanted to understand “how the French acquired their power and their mastery over nature; how they led their daily lives, educated their children, treated their women and servants…In short, [he] wanted to know the condition of French civilization and why it differed from his.” This piece of Rihla literature thus gives a unique insight into Moroccan-French relations during the 19th century.
Al-Tijani
Abu Muhammad Abd Allah ibn Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Tijani was an author and traveler during the Hafsid Caliphate. He journeyed between Tunis and Tripoli (Libya) during the 14th century and wrote a detailed Rihla account of his travels. His work contains detailed descriptions of each stop in his journey including references to the topography, history, peoples, and also includes quotes of some of the poets of Tunis.
Rifa’a al-Tahtawi
An Egyptian writer, educator, and intellectual of the Nahda, Rifa’a al-Tahtawi was one of the first Egyptians to travel to France in the 19th century. He also pioneered thinking about adjusting to encounters with the West on Islamic terms and fostering understanding between Muslim and Christian societies. In 1834, Tahtawi published “Takhlīṣ al-ʾibrīz fī talkhīṣ Bārīz” (The Extrication of Gold in Summarizing Paris), which was a detailed account of his stay in France.
Ibn Battuta
Ibn Battuta is perhaps the most well-known medieval traveler. His epic journey across the Islamic world ("Dar al Islam") — documented in his travelogue actually titled "Rihla" — made him one of the best known medieval Arab travelers.
During his lengthy travels – which spanned more than 25 years – Ibn Battuta visited al-Andalus and what are now Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, Turkey, Southern Russia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, the Maldives, Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, Indonesia and Mali. On his return, he was commanded to "dictate an account of the cities which he had seen in his travel, and of the interesting events which had clung to his memory, and that he should speak of those whom he had met of the rulers of countries, of their distinguished men of learning, and of their pious saints."
Via Daily Sabah
Who was Ibn Battuta?
Ibn Battuta was born in Tangiers, Morocco in the early 14th century (1304), to a family of qadis (judges). He was educated in jurisprudence and literature before embarking to Mecca for hajj at the age of 21. Along the way, he planned to enrich and broaden his education by furthering his studies in Egypt, Syria and the Hejaz. After completing his pilgrimage, he decided to continue traveling. So he did for 29 years, starting in Baghdad and venturing into Sub-Saharan Africa, India and Far East Asia, covering a distance of 75,000 miles.
On his journey, Batutta was able to earn a living serving as a judge and scholar wherever he found himself. He also began to gain a reputation simply as a traveler and was welcomed by people wherever he went. He was commissioned by Morocco’s Sultan Abu Inan to travel and collect geographical, political and cultural information. Fun fact: Tangier’s airport is named after him.
Via Flight Radar
When he returned to Morocco, he recorded his experience in collaboration with Ibn Juzayy, a young literary scholar. The Sultan of Morocco enlisted Ibn Juzayy to transcribe Ibn Battuta’s accounts and “to fill in gaps in Ibn Battuta's descriptions, [he] borrowed descriptions of Mecca, Medina and Damascus from a 12th-century traveler Ibn Jubayr, and perhaps descriptions of other places from other travelers, too.” The result was “A Masterpiece to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Traveling” (Tuḥfat an-Nuẓẓār fī Gharāʾib al-Amṣār wa ʿAjāʾib al-Asfār).
تحفة النظار في غرائب الأمصار وعجائب الأسفار
It is more commonly referred to as Ibn Battuta’s Al-Rihla, and is a melange of his personal memories, hearsay and other people’s anecdotes.
The Travels of Ibn Battuta
Britannica calls Ibn Battuta “the greatest medieval Muslim traveler” and it’s not difficult to understand why. His travels took him all over, covering more than 75,000 miles (120,000 km) and culminating in his travel memoir, which chronicles his odyssey from start to finish.
He made stops in nearly all Muslim countries. He embarked on his travels in 1325, setting off from Tangier, "riding through the mountainous interior of Morocco," and heading towards Cairo. You might be surprised to learn that he made it as far as Mali, Zanzibar, Eastern China, Sri Lanka and the Maldives.
“I set out alone, having neither fellow-traveler in whose companionship I might find cheer, nor caravan whose party I might join, but swayed by an overmastering impulse within me and a desire long-cherished in my bosom to visit these illustrious sanctuaries. So I braced my resolution to quit all my dear ones, female and male, and forsook my home as birds forsake their nests. My parents being yet in the bonds of life, it weighed sorely upon me to part from them, and both they and I were afflicted with sorrow at this separation.”
afikra Lesson Plans
In collaboration with the University of Chicago Center for Middle Eastern Studies, and with support from the the US Department of Education, we’ve developed free-to-use lesson plans and curricular material for high-school teachers in the US who want to supplement their program with material on Arab histories and cultures. Here, you’ll get a little taste of what the lesson plan covers with a brief overview of Ibn Battuta’s life and travels.
High-school teachers looking to include content about the Arab world in their lessons can use afikra’s classroom resources. The Travels of Ibn Batutta lesson plan delves into this enigmatic wanderer and his legendary journey.
The lesson plan includes informational slides that are ready for classroom use, thought-provoking readings, stimulating discussion questions, and student activities – all designed to help students develop an inquisitive and enduring understanding of Ibn Batutta’s life, travels and legacy.
